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Archive for the ‘Environmental Economics’ Category

Introduction

The corporate responsibility is the expression of the values within the business strategies and the set of commitments and their obligations that are made by the stakeholders. The company is responsible to the operations that are taking place in the company and these operations are assisted by the ethical values and by the policies and programmes that make the values operational.  Thus the organization’s ethical values and standards should support the operations that are done by the company and the operations of the employees in their activities. The social responsibility is the approaches that are taken by the company that is the social and there environmental impacts that show how the company operates and the contribution it makes to ensure the well being of the global and the local communities where it operates. The corporate social responsibility can also refer to the concept that a company considers the interests of the society as the company take the responsibility of the activities of the customers, the employees, share holders, communities and the environment in its operations. (Mark, 2001, pp35)

A business ethics is the application of the ethical values to business behavior, which includes the aspects of the business conduct and also the treatment that is given by the company to the employees and the suppliers to the sales techniques and the accounting practices. The business ethics goes beyond the legal requirements of the company and thus the company has got to know the values that have to be taken so that they can improve in the performance. A company has to address the ethics because of the internal and the external factors that exert pressure on the company and affect its operation.  The nature of the benefits of the corporate social responsibility for the company depends on the nature of that company.  The responsibility is based on the human resources, the business development departments that are in that particular company.

Where by each department has got its own function that has to be performed so that the company can achieve its goals of providing the products the customers.  In the case of the human resources the company should ensure that it has comprehensive policy that will enable it in improving the perceptions of the staff and this will lead to further changes in its performance.  The corporate strategies ensures that it manages the risks of the company so that it can be able to build a real culture of undertaking the right thing so that the company can know how to go about its risks. The company has to ensure that it has branded its products so that the customers know which product to purchase therefore the corporate social responsibility has the role of building the customer loyalty through having a distinctive ethical values and this is very important for the company and the customers and every one who has to do something in the company. (Mark, 2001, pp23)

The company should ensure that the requirements that allow the supply of the product have been followed these are things like the health and safety regulations and thus the company will produce the product and more will be sold because there will be no regulations that will affect the supply of this product.  The company should ensure that all the requirements are followed and this will lead to economic growth this is because with more production and more sales then it means that the profits will be high and therefore the employees will get high salary that will improve their living standards and thus the country will face economic changes.  In throe adoption of the corporate social responsibility the company has to follow the ethical consumerism which will enable the company know the consumer decisions and this will have an assistance in knowing the resources that are to be used so that more is produced. There is the globalization and the market forces the company will be able to seek for public support this is due to the changes that occur as the company is pursuing growth of globalization and thus through this assistance then it will be able to face the competition that exists in the market.

There should be social awareness and education this ensures that the shareholders are socially responsible for the investments that will improve the performance of the company and therefore more investments made leads to more sales and high production been done by that particular company.  There is need for the ethics training so that the employees are able to make the ethical decisions when the answers that they get are not clear this will lead to the high performance for such company because the employees will learn the normative values and rules in human behavior.

This will lead to the increase in the benefit of the loyalty to the employees and thus the company will benefit, as the employees will work with a high desire to make the company produce more.  The company has to make the consideration on the government laws and regulations this is because if the laws are not set to have the social responsibility then the company will enter into problems in its operations.  The company will have a lot of burden to the laws in terms of interpreting them and therefore its operations will be affected and there will be a financial burden to the country because its economy will be interrupted. This is because the company will not perform as its expected meaning that there will be low sales and hence low income is received. (Alice, 2003, pp 67)

The corporate social responsibilities ensure that the company sets policies, practices and programs that will be integrated in the business operations, supply chains and decision making processes so that the company will come out been successful. The responsibility of the current and the past actions and also the future impacts will enable the company know the changes that are to be made so that it can be successful giving honor to the ethical values and the respect to people, communities and the natural environment.  For a company to ensure that it achieves the required success then there is need to have the strategic planning which will be part of making the company produce its products as desired. Through this planning then there is need for the mission statement which tells one what the company is at that time where by there is the inclusion of the customers who will be ready to purchase from the company, the critical processes and the desired level of performance. Therefore the company will be ready to interact the   processes that will lead to the satisfaction of the consumers as their main aim is to ensure that the costumers get the products that they desire and should not have effect after consumption so that more can be demanded which will lead to high sales. (Alice, 2003, pp 70)

In designing the sustainability of the environment the company should ensure that the products are designed in a way that they will not be produced using a lot of resources this is because if more resources have to be used in production of a product and the resources are expensive then it means that the prices for such products should be high and less will be sold in the market as demand will be low.  In designing these products then it means that there will be reduction in the material and energy that will be required and also the pollution will be prevented. This means that the company will have the reduction in the environmental impact that may affect the company in its production. The company should have the EcoAudit which means the company has got to go beyond the compliance audits which are concerned with there evaluation of the company in knowing whether it meets the federal and the local environmental regulations as well as the internal corporate policies and the required standards.  This will ensure that the production of such a product is made without problems, as the company will be able to use the opportunities that will lead to the improvement of the product design.  The company has to ensure that it can be able to create more goods and services with few resources and create less waste and pollution thus the company will have the eco- efficiency and such a company will have high production as it will face few challenges that affect the production of a product.  The company should ensure that it is located together with the service businesses so that they can have an enhanced environmental, economic, and social performance.

This is because they will have collaboration in managing the environmental and the resource issues and therefore such a company will know how to go about the environmental problems that may affect it and thus the product will not be affected. The company should have its focus on the most efficient and productive raw materials and the natural resources so that it can minimize the impacts on the workers and the natural environment. This will assist the workers in making use of the resources in a more utilized manner and the end product is of the desired quality. Through this the product will have its entire life cycle been considered and thus the raw materials that will be used to produce the desired product. Throe is the environmental impact assessment that deals with the identification, the collection and the estimation in the use of these materials and energy flow information and also the costs that both conventional and the environmental in decision making within the organization. (Collins, 2000, pp67)

The corporate social responsibility of a company ensures that there is the consumer understanding and influence which helps the companies to have interaction with the consumers and also in branding of their products then it becomes easier for the consumers to know which product to purchase so that the don’t get the poor quality products.  The business owner should ensure that the

As defined by the Brundtland Commission (Potter 2002) pg. 117, sustainable development is the “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. We all should seek to sustain the development of the nations, the equity between social classes and the end of poverty. Development is thus an appropriate goal that should be created through sustainable methods, in order to bring growth and the involvement of people in their own development.
The economy is based on its primary source, the environment-nature which provides animals, plants, air, water, land and so on. If we do not protect our primary source of life, sooner or later it is going to affect our health, quality of life. Social equity is gained through a strong economy and fulfilling other types of needs, beyond the basic ones. These three conform an interconnected cycle that provides us of almost all our necessities.
Spangenberg (Spangenberg 2004), pg 12 points out four issues we should address:

•The environmental challenge, the degradation of the natural basis of human life
•The first social challenge, the increasingly unequal distribution of income and assets,
•The second social challenge, the high number of people living in poverty
•The institutional challenge, the resulting threats to peace and security.

These issues seek, through the appropriate public administration, to provide citizens with the opportunities to have a dignified life, the basis of a sustainable development. A dignified life is thus affected by the following issues as Rogers et al (Rogers 2008) points out and are factors that should be considered strongly in order to attain sustainable development:

•Population Planning. According to Rogers et al (Rogers 2008) pg. 53, “population growth is not such significant factor in environmental degradation” but, I agree with the authors that when improves the competition for resources such as land and water intensifies which it may brings conflicts.
•Participation. Where citizens influence and control activities that brings their own development, including the poor and the disadvantaged
•Policy and market failures. Especially being indifferent to what is damaging the resources, or giving priority to activities to deforestation.

•Good Governance. Its relation with market failures is pointed out and the success of policy, unfortunately, in many developing countries, for example, corruption is common and is characterized by the use of any opportunity to abuse others. In my opinion, it is an unfair threat to development or the worse cancer to it. According to United Nations Development Programme (UNDP 2008), “The erosion of human rights and respect for constitutional authority hinders programmes to alleviate poverty and increase human security”. The impact of corruption is worse for poor people and in developing countries.
•Prevention and Management of Disasters. Disasters can affect everyone at any time and people should be aware of it. Disasters are unexpected, with little or no warning or opportunity to prepare. Available personnel and emergency services may be overwhelmed initially by demands for their services, and lives, health, and the environment are endangered (CT Department of Emergency Management & Homeland Security 2003). Migration of rural inhabitants to urban cities, seeking more work opportunities, health services or others, make people locate to the surroundings or hillsides of the cities, where utilities are scarce or do not exist as well as transportation or other services to the community. Usually people move under poor conditions aggravating the economic growth of the cities.

•Natural disasters. Disaster management is requested as a requirement for sustainable development because it impacts sectors such as social, economic and environmental.
Cristicisms of the 1st Green Revolution

The green revolution (GR) originally was implemented in response to the growing population during the 1960′s. As overlooked by Malthus, innovation became the solution to handling the exponential growth of the population. Food supplies were increased through the implementation of High Yielding Varieties (HYV’s) of crops that were genetically modified to increase yields. At first this was thought to have been a successful endeavor. Rice and wheat yields in India tripled as more crops were able to grow on the same amount of land. The GR was lauded for increasing productivity per capita, creating more resistant crops, using less fertilizer and shortening growing seasons (Benson 2007).

However, as the green revolution expanded, problems arose, socially, economically and environmentally. Economically problems began because the new varieties of crops were costly, creating a situation where only wealthier farmers were able to grow them. As food production increased for these wealthier farmers, food prices plummeted. Smaller-scale farmers were not able to compete with these prices and were forced to sell to the consolidating large monopolies. This, along with the fact that mechanization of farms created higher unemployment led to social problems due to an increase of people moving away from rural sectors and into urban ones. Cities became overcrowded with unemployed ex-farmers who were looking for employment—creating numerous social problems (Benson 2007).

Environmentally it was overlooked that the increase in yield per area would mean an increased stress on the land for that area. Higher levels of irrigation led to salinization of the soil while the increased water demand lead to salt-water intrusion in the aquifers. Due to the fact that the newly created crops were more resistant to the harmful effects of pesticides, farmers began using more pesticides rather than less. This subsequently further polluted the water supply, leading to the cycle where the poor become poorer because of environmental pollution.
The initial Green Revolution failed in part, because it did not examine the externalities. It myopically tried to focus solely on the problem of production without comprehensively considering the Social, Environmental and Economic Ramifications of its strategy.

The article “The End of Plenty” (Bourne 2009), points out that the use of pesticides and chemicals is killing farmers. It has also been shown to cause blood cancer in farmers. As an example, in Punjab, India, researchers found pesticides in farmers’ blood, their water table, their vegetables, even their wives’ breast milk. Another reason is the high cost of fertilizers and pesticides which has plunged many Punjab farmers into debt. A second green revolution could be based on genetic modification only with the purpose of growing new varieties with higher yields, reduced fertilizer needs, and drought tolerance, but, I believe that, nevertheless, a genetically treated seeds could involve other secondary effects still unknown. I agree with Rachel Bezner Kerr (Bourne 2009) pg. 58, that big companies are pushing farmers to participate in foreign programs instead of using ecological methods and local resources and skills.
In general, the first green generation failed because they focus only on using the land without having a better management plan to avoid depletion. This first green generation exemplifies the wrong idea we still have that mainly economic development is the best option for progress. The concept of the second green revolution is an improved version on what the first practitioners wanted to do, but this time the environmental element is included.

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• Hybrid Cars Worse For Environment (1)

Copyright (c) 2008 Daniel Lafleche

Today’s journals of trade and popular culture are all but awash in the buzzwords ‘sustainable’ and ‘sustainability’. Here, we are obliged to raise the red flag and warn of lurking danger. These diverse and many advocates do a great disservice in more ways than they know.

For in this great sea of ‘sustainability’, which spans business strategies and regimens of weight loss, one all too easily loses sight of the real battle. We know that over-use of a term can have an unintended blunting effect. But the word is so much in vogue, and its employment so overzealous, that it has in many instances become obscured entirely. So, you ask, what is sustainable development? Who are its proponents and antagonists? And, oh yes, why exactly is it to be so desired after all?

Ours is an age in which we have come under the twin pressures of burgeoning population growth and an accompanying intensification of economic development. This development is necessary for the provision of the surging population’s needs and wants. Though rates of population growth show signs of slowing, the number of earth’s inhabitants will continue to expand massively in the foreseeable future. With the added variable of impending climate change, there is a sudden and new awareness of the potentially destructive nature of the human project.

These realities have given immense weight to calls for an oversight which explicitly takes account of the fate of future generations. Many nuanced definitions have been devised, but the most commonly evoked is that sustainable development “meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” General consensus holds that the sustainability project spans three interactive domains; these are (1) environmental sustainability, (2) economic sustainability, and (3) social-political sustainability.

Environmental sustainability is concerned with the preservation of resources and our earth’s natural environment. In the strictest sense, any process which allows natural capital (the net sum of all natural resources and other bounties of the earth) to be depleted faster than it can be replenished threatens its ability to function and to serve us properly and indefinitely. Advocates of environmental protection actively seek solutions which will minimize the present and future burden to our natural environment of industrial and other pursuits. The best solutions are those which find ways to incorporate renewable methods of resource exploitation.

The notion of environmental sustainability is thus inextricably bound to the premise of economic sustainability. Rapid advances in new technologies and production techniques are constantly altering and expanding the boundary of production possibilities. But ultimately, economics is the science of the allocation of a finite resource pool. Promotion of economic sustainability thus seeks to allow for future generations to reach their own optimal allocations free from constraints imposed by our own patterns of exploitation in the here and now.

The sphere of social-political sustainability is interesting in that it expands beyond the simple necessity of economic growth and its effect on the natural environment to more directly include the human element in the equation. Social-political sustainability promotes social harmony and continuity of healthy political institutions so that a mechanism is in place for the enactment of the collective will (presumably a will which is favorable to sustainability).

The project of sustainable development has inevitably encountered resistance. Some are eager to point out that any economic pursuit which entails resource depletion is by that very fact unsustainable. But to make this charge is to reduce the debate to semantics; to contend that the impossibility of an absolute application invalidates the endeavor wholesale is to court the ridiculous.

Another more prominent criticism is slightly more troublesome to counter. Available evidence seems to confirm the wisdom that as nations emerge from poverty and amass wealth they are more willing to dedicate a portion of their incomes to combat pollution and other unpleasantries. The wealthy industrialized nations of the world at one time advanced through dirtier stages analogous to the present progress of developing economies. However at that time there were no monitors or whistle-blowers. This school of critics cries hypocrisy. They uphold “dirty” mediums of economic growth that wealthier nations can now afford to bypass as the only hope to elevate massive populations from abject misery. In so doing, they seek to force arbiters of sustainable development into the unenviable position of choosing between the welfare of the earth’s poor and that of the earth itself.

In the face of these criticisms, proponents of sustainable development strive for the national and international coordination of environmental, economic and sometimes social policies in the advancement of responsible progress. They are mindful that the world more than ever is a system of actors, none of whose actions bear no consequence for others. Their goal is the day-to-day management of policy decisions such that humanity might enjoy the bounty of our natural environment without exhausting it, and without selfishly revoking the privilege of coming generations to do the same.

Without sounding the bells of certain alarmists, sustainability of this color is to be venerated and upheld. Dilution of the term’s strength by those who would seek to hijack its nobility is, on the other hand, to be regretted and indeed resisted.

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Looking At Concrete In A New Light

Concrete has traditionally endured a poor reputation as a fundamental building material due to perceptions concerning its reliance on virgin raw materials and the energy consumption and emissions associated with its production process. Based on recent developments, CEMEX UK’s Technical Director, Steve Crompton, argues that concrete should, instead, be viewed as a sustainable, strong, long-lasting, versatile and economically important construction material that has a vital part to play in the UK’s development of more sustainable communities.

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. It is all around us; from offices to schools, roads to railways and dams to homes. Its powerful economic sway sees over 40,000 people directly employed in its UK manufacture, and it supports a construction industry employing seven per cent of our population. However, when it comes to considering its sustainable credentials, which will ensure that we balance our current rate of development with the resource requirements of future generations, it is important to look at ready-mix concrete from several angles: its environmental and lifecycle aspects, its economic impact and its contribution to our society in general.

Taking the environmental aspect first. There is clear evidence that improvements in environmental performance are underway to minimise the impact of concrete production. These changes include actively reducing the emissions associated with the concrete manufacturing process, and lower the reliance on virgin raw materials by increasing the use of by-products in concrete. Add in better management of waste, the use of more recycled aggregates and alternative fuels, as well as the thermal mass of concrete, which in the face of climate change, can help keep future housing cooler in summer than lightweight houses, whilst also saving heating fuel in winter, it is clear that concrete has a fundamental part to play in helping to deliver the energy efficient buildings of the future.

While total construction industry impact accounts for 10 per cent of total UK CO2 emissions, concrete is responsible for just 2.6 per cent of this. Compared to the 33 per cent generated by transport, this is a relatively small amount, especially considering its importance as a basic construction material. Concrete also comes out favourably when compared to structural steel, where the amount of CO2 generated per tonne is approximately 10 times greater than that of reinforced concrete.

The use of waste products from other industries, such as ground blast furnace slag or fly ash, either as a mixer addition or incorporated in factory-blended cement significantly reduces the overall greenhouse gas emissions, and means that this essential building material is, and will continue to make, a significant contribution to the Government’s UK Climate Change Programme of driving down CO2 emissions by 60 per cent by 2050.

In addition to actively consuming waste products from other industries and processes, the industry is working towards improving production plants and compliance with international standards, such as ISO 14001, to prevent pollution and ensure continual improvement through the implementation of environmental management systems (EMS). Use of recycled water at production plants is also on the increase and is increasingly commonplace.

It’s not only the environmental aspects of concrete that should be assessed as sustainable and positive, however, so let’s consider its overall lifecycle.

Like other building materials, concrete has a life span. When compared to other commonly used construction materials it is by far the most durable, with a typical design life of at least 60 years. It essentially has three phases of life. Its creation, its use in buildings and structures, and its reuse through recycling once the building comes to the end of its life.

It is far more likely that a modern concrete building will be deemed obsolete due to no further perceived usage, than the concrete fabric of the structure having failed due to age. With this in mind, and with cost-efficiency and sustainability now to the fore, reuse of concrete buildings is ever more commonplace. The material offers flexibility and seemingly redundant concrete structures can be worked on, redesigned and rebuilt with new up-to-date specifications. However, if demolished, the resulting aggregate can also be used for a number of applications as a ready-made and important recycled material.

Contrary to popular belief, all rubble does not end up in landfill after a building’s demolition. Anything up to 95 per cent of a building’s components can in fact be recycled, including the most heavily reinforced concrete.

Indeed, recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) has proven performance characteristics and is being used in the ongoing production of new concrete – thus completing its life circle. New European Standards have cleared the way for greater use of recycled concrete aggregates in the manufacturing process, supporting UK Government targets of increasingly meeting construction demand with material from secondary and recycled sources.

From an economic point of view, concrete and its sustainable credentials are well matched. To improve their sustainability credentials, products should be consumed as near to the place of production as possible. This country’s self sufficiency in providing the core materials required for concrete production means that inbound raw material transport and import levels are kept to a minimum. More often than not, the concrete industry uses locally sourced materials for local construction projects, thereby minimising transport related impacts. Compare this to timber, which imports over 98 per cent of the total volume used in UK construction.

With increased pressure on conserving fossil fuels, such as coal, for future generations, rising energy costs and changes to our climate, concrete can contribute positively by offsetting the heating up of buildings (especially in summer). Concrete’s high thermal mass can help absorb the heat generated by people, computers, lighting and electrical equipment, and keep internal temperatures lower.

The thermal mass in concrete walls and floors stores energy from the sun and the building’s own heating system, and releases this at night, thereby sustaining warmer overnight temperatures and reducing the need for heating.

Finally, from an economic standpoint, as a self-sufficient producer of this material and a UK net exporter of concrete and component materials, concrete more than holds its own against other important materials.

Concrete offers many virtues to our society as a whole. It produces natural light when used in exposed areas within a structure, and reduces the need for artificial lighting. It is naturally inorganic and inert, and does not need treatment with additional toxic chemicals. It has inbuilt fire resistance and offers secure characteristics due to its strength and robustness, and will last for a minimum of 60 years with little or no maintenance. There is no process of natural decay, which bodes well for future predicted environmental changes, and as a material for buildings is well regarded by designers and the public alike, who according to research, view masonry built houses as having the longest life expectancy of all construction options.

Sustainability is no longer an issue of choice, but must be considered at the very heart of ongoing development for our society. Assessing the sustainable credentials of products is a complex business and must take into consideration their combined environmental, economic and social impact and performance.

As illustrated here, concrete is a fundamental building material which combined environmental, economic and social performance is strong. It therefore has a critical role to play in delivering more sustainable communities, by reducing emissions and providing long-lasting, secure as well as cost and energy efficient buildings for the future.

We in the cement and readymix concrete industries are proud of the essential role we have played in creating Britain’s built environment and are positive that our industry has a lot more to contribute in the future to the further development of sustainable building materials.

INTRODUCTION     

Most countries particularly the developing ones like Nigeria are faced with the enormous challenges of urban planning problems which in turn affects the economic development. Urban growth for instance has a number of impacts on the environment and human well-being. Apart from the few impacts, almost all major cities of the country are increasingly plagued by environmental problems. In other words, there is a great threat to health and safety in most Nigerian cities (Egunjobi, 2000 and Kessides, 2006) courtesy of unguided urbanization and ineffective planning (Mabogunje, 2001; Ogunsanya, 2002 and Egunjobi, 2000). There are several schools of thoughts and insights into the causal factors, and government’s attempts tame towards alleviating the situation. One of such factors is overlapping of professional practices that greatly affect the functionality of our environment and the society at large. For Instance, in Nigeria, overlapping of professional practice per-se is not the only factor affecting effective functionality of the society.

The paper argued that, much as professional overlaps might be an issue in most developing countries, lack of adequate focus on planning as a profession, and the actions of quacks have contributed significantly to the worsening urban problems. Specifically, this paper espouses on professionalism, and highlights the responsibilities of planning to different segments of the society as it emphasises the need for proficiency among planners through continuous training and re-training programmes, such as seminars, workshops and refreshers courses.It suffices to ask the question as to who is a professional Urban and Regional Planner? What are their responsibilities to sustainable livelihoods and development of a nation? The underlying motivations of this paper relates to the dynamic nature of professionalism as a concept, and the essence of competent practitioners in our society. This is more pertinent as technological revolution is impacting on diverse facets of human endeavour. In addition, geographical zoning has tended to vary the practice of Urban and Regional Planning from nation to nation.

Based on this premise, this paper attempts to contribute to growing academic literatures by discussing who a professional Urban and Regional Planner is in the Nigerian context.

 Professional Urban and Regional Planner

Professionalism is an inclusive term covering a variety of activities in different field of study. Oni, (2007), buttressed this point by emphasising the fact that professional activity would encompass a particular level of systematic knowledge and proficiency. Thus, planning education is a systematic process aimed at developing knowledge, skills, and other capabilities within individuals. It includes training and re-training exercise in an institution of higher learning approved by the Ministry of Education and the Town Planners Registration Council of Nigeria (TOPREC). Precisely, a professional Town Planner is identified here as a person who has gained mastery or proficiency in planning and related fields of knowledge and skills; and can effectively help local officials to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems through delineation for roads paths, schools location and other infrastructure designation; and suggesting zoning regulations for private properties within a locality. The Nigerian Institute of Town Planners views a professional Town Planner as a person who possesses any of the following academic/professional qualifications:(i) A degree in Urban and Regional Planning/Town Planning;(ii)A Professional Diploma in Urban and Regional Planning/Town Planning;(iii)A pass in the final stage of the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners/Town Planners Registration Council Examination;(iv)Attainment of 2 years post qualification supervised experience.It should be noted that, courses leading to the award of the specified qualification (i) and (ii) above must be from any institution recognised and accredited by the Town Planners Registration Council (TOPREC) (NITP, 1991).It can be deduced from the above that, a Master’s Degree from an accredited planning institution provides the best training for a wide range of planning positions.

However, various degrees in urban and regional planning from notable institutions aims to provide planners with ;

(i) A broad understanding of the forces and processes shaping cities, regions and built and natural environment;

(ii)To keep a breast with the physical, economic, social and environmental factors that strongly influence the practice of the profession;

(iii)The knowledge and confidence to question and, where necessary to challenge current planning wisdom, and the creativity to develop alternative planning proposals and;

(iv)To engender in planners the respect and commitment necessary to make effective community consultation and interdisciplinary collaboration crucial to planning practice.

Above all, professional Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should also be flexible to reconcile different view points and make constructive policy recommendations. Professional Planners should however be able to communicate effectively, both orally and in writing, as this is necessary and can never be divulge from individuals that are interested in the Urban and Regional Planning profession.Agbola et al (2004) perceived planning as a purposeful action. In other words, it involves taking decisions or making appropriate arrangements before hand to influence the course of action on a particularly developmental need. They went further to explain that, planning consists of making suitable choices among several options which appear open for the future and then advice the concern government on how to deploy necessary resources to implement the adopted alternative. This definition, which is one among several views (Oyesiku, 1998; Adeniji, Egunjobi, 2001) of purposeful planning, show or view planning as;

(i) General approach to decision making;

(ii) A future oriented exercise;

(iii)An activity with many alternatives;

(iv)The choice of one alternative among several others, depending on facts based on past experience, present situation, the anticipated future and the resources (human and materials) available at that point in time and/or expected to be available at the time of implementation (Agbola et al, 2004 and Agbola, 2007).

It is worth mentioning that, the professional Town Planner’s primary responsibility is to serve the public interest. However, the definition of the public interest is formulated through continuous debates; a planner owes allegiance to a conscientiously attained concept of the public interest, which requires special obligations. In actual fact, public interest refers to the common good of society at large. It also entails the “common well-being” or general “welfare”. Accordingly, public interest is central to policy debates and professional practice. Thus professional planners have valuable responsibilities to the public, clients and employers, to the professional and colleagues and planner’s self-responsibility. For effective practice, planners requires the use of theories and techniques of planning (Agola, 2001 and Ayeni, 1998) that informs and structures debate, facilitate communication and foster understanding. Interestingly, professional Planners are expected to:

(i)Practice in a manner that respects the diversity needs, values and aspirations of the public and encourages discussion on these matters;

(ii) Provide full, clear and accurate information on planning matters to decision makers and members of the public;

(iii) Acknowledge the inter-related nature of planning decisions and their consequences for individuals, the natural and built environment, and the broader public interest; and

 (iv) Identify and promote opportunities for meaningful participation in the planning process to all interested parties.Apart from the stated responsibilities of professional planners to the public, the vitality and credibility of the planning profession and of the institute are reflective of the quality of the membership. To further the profession, members will be expected to attain and maintain a high standard of professional competence and conduct, which extends to their relationship with other members.They are also expected to encourage healthy and constructive criticism about theory and practice of planning among colleagues and share the results of experience and research output that contribute to the evolving body of planning knowledge.Moreso, maintenance of appropriate awareness of contemporary planning philosophy, theory, and practice by seeking and receiving professional education throughout a planning career. Much discussion in developing countries particularly Nigeria today surrounds the relationship between that section of the society concerned with the development of long- and short-term plans for the use of land and the growth and revitalization of urban, sub-urban and rural communities and the region in which they are located and the world of work.

The discussion has tried to focus on such issues as; the increase in building collapse in cities; rapid urbanization and population growth that create a big challenge for state and municipal governments in terms of infrastructure and services provision.The scale and complexity of the above mentioned facts are intensifying in Nigeria. Building collapse, traffic congestion and accidents, unemployment, urban violence and crime and a host of others are recognised problems in Nigerian cities. They however have dramatic impact on social fabric of cities, threaten the reform process and erode the ability of the poor to build

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

AND

ENERGY SECURITY

 

Abstract

 

 

Sustainable Development in the words of Brundtland report   is “the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations

To meet their own needs “.

 

 

In this context nuclear energy as a future energy source has occupied centre stage of

India’s concern. The characteristics of nuclear energy, it’s economic, environmental

and social impact and its link to sustainable development have come under the scanner of economic and political debate in the recent times.

 

 

This paper entitled “Sustainable Development and Energy Security” attempts to explore the prospects of adopting nuclear energy as a future energy source to meet the India’s

growing energy needs. Nuclear energy, though requires large capital investment in form of nuclear power plants, is seen as an alternative to fossil fuels. Use of nuclear energy not only meets the growing energy demands, but also minimizes the environment and social burdens.

 

 

Nuclear energy does not have environmental effects on global warming, green house effect, climate change and pollution. Hence the central goal of sustainable development i.e.maintainence and development of natural, human and social assets will have been met by use of nuclear energy.

 

This paper analyses the following aspects:

Various forms and sources of energy.
The role of energy in economic development.
The problems of developing countries vis-à-vis energy security.
Nuclear power and its importance in the light of power shortage in India in the context of sustainable development.
Suggestions.
Conclusions.

 

.        Keywords: sustainable development, energy security, nuclear energy,

 

1.     SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENERGY SECURITY

 

 

1)      Introduction

India’s energy resources are mostly available in convenient form. India has a

Significant reserves of coal, its electricity generation is also significant

Today more than 70% of power generation is through burning of coal.

We have 221 billion tones of coal reserves .India has a large hydro potential and only a part of this potential has been exploited .as per department of atomic energy  of India ,India as also good uranium deposits supporting growth of “Nuclear Energy”. India is growing giant facing the critical challenge of meeting a rapidly increasing demand for energy .

 

India ranks 6th in the world in terms of energy demand and our economy is projected to grow  7% to 8% in next two decades .the international energy agency projects indias dependence on oil imports will be more at 91.6% by the year 2020  and India is relatively poor in the oil and gas resources . Even though there are several problems associated with energy in India from 1951 to 2005, it has produced coal 12 times greater then what was available in 1951 crude oil production increased 110 times.   And the electricity installed capacity had a growth by over 68 times.

India has to meet two big challenges for a sustainable development  .firstly it should meet the increasing demand for energy resources in the country .secondly it should avoid all environmental hazards and its should ensure an energy security by conservation of energy  so that the future generation can also meet their wants for energy resources with available stock .this can lead to long term economic development which indicates the “Sustainable Economic Development” on which our attention is much more needed.

 

 

2.  SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

The concept of sustainable development was elaborated in the late 1980.

The tern sustainable development was brought into common use by the world commission on Environment and Development in its seminar report called

“Our common Future”.  Brundtland Commission defines sustainable development as “Development that needs the needs of the present generation without comprising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs.

 

We can understand that use of the concept “Needs” in the definition is linked with the distribution of resources through three components of man made capitals, human capital and natural capital & it aims to achieve sustainable development through integration of three dimensions in a balanced way.

 

According to Professor Barthwal of ‘Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur’ has highlighted some important indicators of sustainable development there are as follows:

1)      GDP growth rate.

2)      Population Stability.

3)      Human Resources Development Index.

4)      Clean Air index.

5)      Energy intensity.

6)      Renewable energy proportion.

7)      Material intensity.

8)      Water use.

9)      Soil degradation.

10)  Forest coverage.

11)  Re-cycling proportions.

12)  Transport intensity.

 

 

 

These indicators show the changing trends of an economy towards Sustainable Development.  Let us discuss this concept from the point of view

Of Energy Security and adopting Nuclear Energy as a future Energy Source which is the latest Debate in our country.

 

 

2)      FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy has several forms which is useful to all human beings:

Mechanical Energy:    Like kinetic and potential position against resistance.
Heat Energy:   Can cause gases to expand, can melt the metals and convert water into steam.
Radiant Energy:          Include light, radio, X-Rays, Laser etc.
Electro-magnetic Energy:       Flow of electrons producing an electric current.
Chemical Energy:        Stored in molecules of Food or in fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
Nuclear Energy:          The force that combines the atomic nucleus together it is obtained through Fusion and Fission.

These energy are inter-convertible but it incurs a economical expenses which may not be profitable also Ex: Electrical Energy into light or heat Energy.

 

3)           SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy Sources refers to the sources from which energy is obtained to provide heat, light and power.

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy sources:

Non-Renewable Energy sources are those which are lost in one operation the called depletable or exhaustible sources of energy their availability s always fixed and they are always at a declining stage Ex: Fossil fuel.

Renewable or In exhaustible energy sources are those which are perennial in nature they are regarded as flows rather than as stocks their total supply cannot be more than the available flow and the flow is perennial.

Ex: Hydro-electricity.

Commercial and Non-Commercial Energy Sources:

 

Commercial Energy Sources we include all those sources which are supplied through formal and organized Industries and marketing channels.Ex: Coal, Petroleum, natural gas which do not result in production, distribution and consumption or strictly passed through exchange Ex: fire wood, agriculture straw and animal waste etc.

 

Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Sources:

All those sources which the mankind is used to using are called Conventional Sources which those which are in their sources which those which are in their introductory stage or which can be used in future are called additional, alternative, or Non-Conventional Energy Sources.

Commercial sources of Energy play a vital role in developing country like India for Economic Growth and later in development.

 

4)          TRENDS IN THE PRODUCTION OF COMMERCIAL ENERGY (1950-51 TO 2004-05)

 

Energy is the a vital resource for the economic development the production of commercial energy has increased steadily after introduction of economic planning and energy sector reforms in

“New Economic Policy” in 19191.from 1951 and 2005 coal

Production has increased by nearly 12 times, crude oil production by

110 times and electricity [installed capacity] by over 68 times.

 

Growth of Commercial Energy -1951 to 2004-2005.

 

1950-1951

1970-71

2004-05

Coal [in tones]

33

76

413

Oil crude [m.tonnes]

0.3

7

34

Electricity installed capacity [mw]

2.3

16.3

137.5

Generation [billion kwh]

7

61

650

Source: Economic survey 2005-06 .

Now let us see the consumption trends of commercial energy:

Consumption Trends of Commercial Energy.

Sectoral Trends In Commercial Energy Consumption

 

1953-54

1970-71

1996-97

House hold sector

10

12

12

Agriculture

1

3

9

Industries

40

50

42

Transport

44

28

22

others

5

7

15

 

100

100

100

.

Percentage Share of Different Fuels in Commercial Energy Consumption.

 

1953-54

1970-71

1996-97

Coal

80

56

29

Oil and gas

17

35

54

Electricity

3

9

17

 

100

100

100

 

Important points:

 

a)       The transport sector was the largest consumer of commercial energy but in later stages there is a fall in total energy

Incoming search terms:

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The preventive pre-treatment environmental actions are safer, faster, better and in all included less costly versus the “end-of-the-pipe” post treatment solutions.

The “3R” novel indirectly heated rotary kiln pyrolysis and torrefaction technology provides carbonization / pyrolysis added value of carboniferous materials.

The goal of the 3R technology is to provide cost efficient and for long term environmentally sustainable carbon refining solution for energetic, agricultural and environmental applications. The main component of the 3R is a specially designed, indirectly fired, patented rotary reactor in which organics in a reductive environment are carbonised. e.g. gas-out and decomposed, in low vacuum (0-50 Pascal) up to the material core temperature 850°C degrees Celsius (1,562°F, degrees Fahrenheit). The carbonization temperature selection is feed material specific and in most cases temperatures between 450°C to 550°C (842°F – 1022°F) is sufficient for high efficient thermal decomposition under vacuum. The flexible operation provides wide range of 25 % to 125 % of nominal capacities. The basic material with <15 w/w % moisture content is introduced directly into the 3R reactor, or optionally pre dried. By control of the carbonization process, different types of pre-defined carbon end products can be produced, as of commercial production demanded schedule. The volatile HAPs are safely removed in the reduced volume of gas-vapor stream and converted to syngas and turned into surplus electric power. The standard industrial scale is from 30,000 m3/year (4 m3/h) continuous throughput capacity and optional larger capacities are available up to 420,000 m3/year (56 m3/h). Both electric fired and gas fired versions are available in full scale industrial design.

3R PYROLYSIS APPLICATION AREAS:

AGROCARBON: plant and/or animal bone meal basic material biomass carbonization and integrated biotechnological processing for biochar soil applications,

ENERGY clean coal processing: organic Sulphur removal fro coal streams by pyrolysis pre treatment process; bio-oil refinery to transport fuel quality.

WASTE MANAGEMENT: treatment of solid hazardous and/or non hazardous waste streams for environmental purpose with energy recycling;

3R PYROLYSIS Advantages:

Feedstock Flexibility: application of pre-treated multi fuels from wider fuel selection and availability.

Technology Flexibility: The flexible operation provides wide range of 25 % to 125 % of nominal capacities.

Zero Emission: The 3R is closed system, all process streams are recycled and reused for economical production of added value products.

Cost Reduction: decrease of overall production costs when all true value costs are calculated, including the environmental costs as well.

Improved Safety: application of preventive measures and separated downsized treatment of HAPs.

Process limitation: at refined carbon production the high input moisture content of the raw feed material is limiting factor, for waste management there is no limiting factor.

The innovative 3R technology opens new technical, economical and environmental ways to economically convert and valorize organic and/or inorganic by-products and/or waste streams into added value usefully refined products, while zero emission performance achieved. . The 3R inventor is the Swedish environmental engineer Edward Someus. Although the advanced high tech performance of the 3R industrial scaled design, the comprehensive solution does not containing exotic technical solutions and/or construction materials. Available for licensing.

THE “3R” PYROLYSIS TECHNOLOGY: Economical carbon refining of organic byproducts by low temperature carbonization pre-treatment process

The 3R (Recycle–Reduce–Reuse) Low Temperature Carbonization Process technology represents the original solution advanced new generation of solid feedstock-based carbon refining production system. By pre-treatment it breaks down any carbon-based feedstock into its basic constituents and removes contamination by preventive measure. This enables the preventive separation of HAP’s to produce refined carbon and clean syngas for efficient and improved electricity generation. The 3R technology may be applied as vital component for an integrated strategy towards near zero emission targets to combine technologies for environmentally sustainable and economical biochar processing and/or solid fuel power generation, including but not limited to the advantageous interlink to other cost efficient GHG management technologies to decrease or even removal of output green house gases, such as CO2.

The hearth of the 3R technology is the unique pyrolysis rotary kiln original and innovative solution design, which makes viable the reductive thermal decomposition – low temperature carbonization – of any organic feed material under stable conditions in reduced process streams.

The prime environmental aspects of the 3R technology are the safety, prevention and comprehensive treatment. The 3R technology meets the EU and the U.S. environmental norms and standards for long term, including the U.S. RCRA Miscellaneous Units 40 CFR 264 Subpart X with the following main characteristics for the 3R thermal treatment unit:

Thermal Desorption Chamber: indirect-fired heat source used for primary desorption chamber, relatively low operating temperature.

Air Pollution Control Devices “APCD”: non-destructive APCD used.

Waste Residual Management: treatment of residuals is separate from the desorber,

whereas the (1) primary desorption chamber, (2) condensation or burning of pyrolysis gas vapours and (3) non destructive APCD off gas scrubber are separate devices, whereas (a) treated solids, (b) condensate residuals, (c) APCD residuals, (d) organic air emission, (e) metal air emission, and the (f) acid gas emission treatment are according to all the relevant comprehensive U.S. regulatory requirements for Operational Control, Residuals and Air Emission Parameters. The environmental purpose of 3R thermal desorption is to volatilize contaminant streams in small process gas volumes and to remove them from the treatment chamber for subsequent treatment. From permit legislative point of view it should be noted that the treatment standards in the U.S. relevant legislation Sec. 268.45 for thermal destruction specifically exclude thermal desorbers.

3R pilot plant with industrial like performance has been built in Hungary under the EU FP5 NNNE5/363/2001 project (2001-2005). The pilot plant has a throughput capacity of up to 265 kg/h feed material and includes all vital components for the technology, such as indirectly heated rotary kiln, post burner, off gas scrubber, heat exchangers and process control electronics with software. Further agro industrial application has been developed under large scale European Union development programme EU FP6 514082 project (2005-2008), where comprehensive scientific and industrial scale up “biochar to soil” technology has been developed and tested in seven EU countries and Israel.

For pre-treatment a specific purpose designed, developed and patented pyrolysis technology used, “3R”, consisting of a horizontally arranged externally heated rotary kiln, where the contaminated feed material is carbonized and decomposed in true reductive environment under less than 850°C material temperature and vacuum. Specific pyrolysis gas-vapor post burner, multi venturi off-gas treatment scrubber and carbon heat exchanger used, which makes the 3R technology comprehensive and complete solutions. The flexible operation provides wide range of 25 % to 125 % of nominal capacities. The volatile HAPs are safely removed in the reduced volume of gas-vapor stream and converted to syngas, while the refined Clean Coal solid end product is utilized. “Product like” pilot plant has been built and successfully tested under semi industrial conditions in Hungary since 2005. Nine different types of feed materials (three types of brown coals with different S and ash content, hard coal, four types of biomass – straw, grain, wood chip, sawdust, animal bone meal), totally 111 tons, have been tested with up to 265 kg/h throughput capacity under 1779 hrs, incl. 594 hrs continuous run. The technical viability of the comprehensive 3R technology is demonstrated, including EU compatible industrial permitting from ten different Authorities and certification of ISO 9001 and 14001. Full scale application is designed with modular installation up to 420,000 m3/year solid fuel throughput.

The strategic aspect of the overall 3R technology development scientific/technological objectives is to develop highly flexible solid fuel pretreatment option to be developed and applied to achieve comprehensive benefits as follows:

 Feedstock Flexibility: flexible choice by multi feed.

 Technology Flexibility: The flexible operation provides wide range of 25 % to 125 % of nominal capacities.

 Zero Pollutants: removed environmental impacts (HAP, GHG).The 3R is closed system, all process streams are recycled and reused for economical production of added value products.

 Total Cost Reduction: ecrease of overall production costs when all true value costs are calculated, including

Incoming search terms:

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www.cites.org)

Corporate Social Responsibility integration of social and environmental policies into day-to-day corporate business.

covenants formal agreements or contracts, often between government and industry sectors. The national packaging covenant and sustainability covenants are examples of voluntary covenants with a regulatory underpinning. Land covenants protect land for wildlife into the future.

crop coefficient (Kc) (water management) a variable used to calculate the evapotranspiration of a plant crop based on that of a reference crop.

crop evapotranspiration (ETc) (water management) is the crop water use the daily water withdrawal.

crop rotation (crop sequencing) the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same space in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the build up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped.

crude oil naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons under normal temperature and pressure.

cullet the term used to describe crushed glass that is suitable for recycling by glass manufacturers.

cultural eutrophication – the process that speeds up natural eutrophication because of human activity.

cultural services the non-material benefits of ecosystems including refreshment, spiritual enrichment, knowledge, artistic satisfaction.

culture jamming altering existing mass media to criticise itself (e.g. defacing advertisements with an alternative message). Public activism opposing commercialism as little more than propaganda for established interests, and the attempt to find alternative expression.

culvert drain that passes under a road or pathway, may be a pipe or other conduit.

cut and fill removing earth from one place to another, usually mechanically.

cyanobacteria (Cyanophyta or blue-green algae) a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis.

cyclone intense low pressure weather systems; mid-latitude cyclones are atmospheric circulations that rotate clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and are generally associated with stronger winds, unsettled conditions, cloudiness and rainfall. Tropical cyclones (which are called hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere) cause cause storm surges in coastal areas.

D

DDT – a chlorinated hydrocarbon used as a pesticide that is a persistent organic pollutant.

debt-for-Nature Swap – a financial transaction in which a portion of a developing nation’s foreign debt is forgiven in exchange for local investments in conservation measures.

decomposers consumers, mostly microbial, that change dead organic matter into minerals and heat.

deforestation – the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land for agriculture, urban use, development, or wasteland.

dematerialisation decreasing the consumption of materials and resources while maintaining quality of life.

desalination producing potable or recyclable water by removing salts from salty or brackish water. This is done by three methods: distillation/freezing; reverse osmosis using membranes and electrodialysis; ion exchange. At present, all these methods are energy intensive.

desert an area that receives an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (10 in) or an area in which more water is lost than falls as precipitation.

desertification – the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but primarily from human activities.

detritivore (detritus feeder) – animals and plants that consume detritus (decomposing organic material), and in doing so contribute to decomposition and the recycling of nutrients.

detritus – non-living particulate organic material (as opposed to dissolved organic material).

developing countries development of a country is measured using a mix of economic factors (income per capita, GDP, degree of modern infrastructure (both physical and institutional), degree of industrialisation, proportion of economy devoted to agriculture and natural resource extraction) and social factors (life expectancy, the rate of literacy, poverty). The UN-produced Human Development Index (HDI) is a compound indicator of the above statistics. There is a strong correlation between low income and high population growth, both within and between countries. In developing countries, there is low per capita income, widespread poverty, and low capital formation. In developed countries there is continuous economic growth and a relatively high standard of living. The term is rather value-laden and prescriptive as it implies a natural transition from ndeveloped to eveloped. Although poverty and physical deprivation are clearly undesirable, it does not follow that it is therefore desirable for ndeveloped economies to move towards affluent Western-style eveloped free market economies. We have tended to use the terms ndustrialised and on-industrialised although these too can be misleading.

dfE design for the environment; dfE considers ‘cradle to grave’ costs and benefits associated with material acquisition, manufacture, use, and disposal.

dfM design for manufacturing; designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture.

dfS design for sustainability; an integrated design approach aiming to achieve both environmental quality and economic efficiency through the redesign of industrial systems.

dfX design for assembly/disassembly, re-use. recycle.

dieback (arboriculture) a condition in trees or woody plants in which peripheral parts are killed, either by parasites or due to conditions such as acid rain.

dietary energy supply food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day.

dioxin – any one of a number of chemical compounds that are persistent organic pollutants and are carcinogenic.

distributed water (water management) purchased water supplied to a user; this is usually through a reticulated mains system (but also through pipes and open channels, irrigation systems supplied to farms).

diversion rate (waste disposal) the proportion of a potentially recyclable material that has been diverted out of the waste disposal stream and therefore not directed to landfill.

divertible resource (water management) the proportion of water runoff and recharge that can be accessed for human use.

downcycling (waste management) recycling in which the quality of an item is diminished with each recycling.

downstream those processes occurring after a particular activity e.g. the transport of a manufactured product from a factory to the wholesale or retail outlet cf. upstream.

drainage (water management) that part of irrigation or rainfall that runs off an area or is lost to deep percolation.

drawdown (water management) drop in water level, generally applied to wells or bores.

dredging – (water management) the repositioning of soil from an aquatic environment, using specialized equipment, in order to initiate infrastructural and/or ecological improvements.

drift net – a type of fishing net used in oceans, coastal seas and freshwater lakes.

drinking water (potable water) water fit for human consumption in accordance with World Health Organisation guidelines.

drip irrigation (water management) a drip hose placed near the plant roots so minimising deep percolation and evaporation.

driver (ecology) any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem. A direct driver is one that unequivocally influences ecosystem processes and that can be measured.

drop-off centre (waste management) a location where discarded materials can be left for recycling.

drought an acute water shortage relative to availability, supply and demand in a particular region. An extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.

dryland salinity – (water management) accumulation of salts in soils, soil water and ground water; may be natural or induced by land clearing

E

eco- – a prefix now added to many words indicating a general consideration for the environment e.g. ecohousing, ecolabel, ecomaterial.

eco-asset a biological asset that provides financial value to private land owners when they are maintained in or restored to their natural state.

ecolabel – seal or logo indicating a product has met a certain environmental or social standards.

ecological deficit – of a country or region measures the amount by which its Ecological